The study of psychology in Classical Antiquity opens a window to the intellectual and cultural landscapes that shaped ancient civilizations’ understanding of the human mind, behavior, and consciousness. In this exploration, we journey back to a time when philosophers, scholars, and thinkers in Greece and Rome laid the groundwork for fundamental concepts that continue to resonate in modern psychology. Classical Antiquity, spanning roughly from the 8th century BCE to the 5th century CE, was a period of profound philosophical inquiry, cultural exchange, and societal evolution. This article delves into the rich tapestry of psychological ideas, philosophical currents, and historical context that defined this era.
I. Introduction
A. Definition of Classical Antiquity in the Context of Psychology
In the realm of historical study, Classical Antiquity refers to a period spanning roughly from the 8th century BCE to the 6th century CE. It encompasses the civilizations of ancient Greece and Rome, as well as neighboring cultures such as Egypt, Persia, and Mesopotamia. During this era, a rich tapestry of philosophical, scientific, and cultural developments emerged, many of which laid the foundation for modern psychology. Examining psychology in Classical Antiquity provides a unique opportunity to explore the roots of human thought and inquiry into the workings of the mind.
B. Significance of Exploring Psychology in Classical Antiquity
The exploration of psychology in Classical Antiquity holds profound significance for understanding the evolution of human understanding and introspection. This period marked a turning point in intellectual history, where philosophical thinkers pondered questions about the nature of the self, consciousness, emotions, and human behavior. By delving into the works of ancient scholars and philosophers, we can gain insights into the origins of psychological concepts and theories that continue to shape our understanding of the human mind today.
C. Overview of the Article
This article aims to provide an in-depth exploration of psychology in Classical Antiquity, shedding light on the diverse perspectives, ideas, and contributions of ancient thinkers. Each subsequent section will delve into key topics, including the philosophical underpinnings of psychology, the concept of the self, theories of emotions, and the influence of cultural and societal factors. By examining the psychological landscape of this era, we hope to uncover the roots of psychological thought that have endured through the ages and continue to influence contemporary understanding.
II. Historical Context: Classical Antiquity
A. Definition and Chronological Boundaries of Classical Antiquity
Classical Antiquity, a pivotal era in human history, is generally defined as the period extending from the 8th century BCE to the 6th century CE. This era witnessed the flourishing of various civilizations, including ancient Greece and Rome, as well as the dynamic interplay of ideas, cultures, and knowledge. It was during this epoch that foundational concepts of philosophy, science, and psychology began to emerge.
B. Sociocultural Influences on Psychology in Classical Antiquity
The sociocultural milieu of Classical Antiquity greatly influenced the development of psychological thought. From the bustling agora of Athens to the grandeur of the Roman Forum, these societies were characterized by intellectual exchange, trade, and cultural interactions. Cultural diversity and the exchange of ideas contributed to the emergence of diverse psychological perspectives, blending philosophical inquiry with practical observations of human behavior.
C. Major Philosophical and Intellectual Movements of the Time
Classical Antiquity was marked by an array of profound philosophical and intellectual movements that laid the groundwork for psychological exploration. The Presocratic philosophers, including Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus, sought to understand the fundamental nature of reality and the role of the mind in perception. The advent of Sophism challenged prevailing notions and emphasized the subjectivity of human experience. Additionally, the philosophies of Plato and Aristotle provided comprehensive frameworks for understanding the human psyche, setting the stage for later developments in psychology.
Through an examination of the historical context of Classical Antiquity, we can better appreciate the fertile ground from which psychological inquiry emerged, shaped by the interactions of cultures, the rise of philosophical thought, and the exploration of the human experience.
III. Early Philosophical Thought on the Mind and Soul
A. Pre-Socratic Philosophers and Their Views on Psychology
The Pre-Socratic philosophers of Classical Antiquity, such as Thales, Anaximander, and Heraclitus, laid foundational ideas that contributed to the understanding of the mind and soul. Thales proposed that water was the fundamental substance of the universe, hinting at the idea that nature could be explained through natural elements. Heraclitus introduced the concept of change as a fundamental aspect of reality, reflecting on the dynamic nature of the mind and perception. These early thinkers set the stage for deeper philosophical exploration of the mind and its relationship to the world. Read more about Pre-Socratic Philosophy
B. Plato’s Theory of the Tripartite Soul
Plato, a prominent student of Socrates, developed a comprehensive theory of the soul in his dialogues. In his work “Republic,” Plato introduced the tripartite theory of the soul, positing three distinct parts: reason (logos), spirit (thymos), and desire (epithymia). According to Plato, these components corresponded to the higher rational functions, emotional aspects, and appetitive desires of the soul, respectively. He believed that the harmonious interaction of these parts was essential for achieving a balanced and virtuous life, with reason guiding and governing the other aspects. Read more about Plato’s Psychology
C. Aristotle’s Views on the Soul and Mental Processes
Aristotle, Plato’s student and the founder of the Lyceum, offered his own perspectives on psychology in his treatise “De Anima” (On the Soul). Aristotle categorized living beings into three types based on their souls: the vegetative soul (plants), the sensitive soul (animals), and the rational soul (humans). He explored the functions of the soul, discussing perception, memory, imagination, and intellect. Aristotle proposed that the soul was inseparable from the body and that mental processes were intricately connected to physiological functions. His works laid the groundwork for understanding the interplay between the mind, body, and behavior.
Early philosophical thought in Classical Antiquity revealed a rich tapestry of ideas about the mind and soul. From the Pre-Socratic explorations of fundamental elements to Plato’s intricate tripartite soul theory and Aristotle’s investigations into mental processes, these philosophers contributed diverse perspectives that continue to shape the foundations of psychology. Their inquiries laid the groundwork for further philosophical development and set the stage for the emergence of psychology as a distinct field of study.
Read more about Aristotle’s Psychology
D. Homeric Foundation
In the realm of psychology within Classical Antiquity, the Homeric poems stand as foundational texts that provide glimpses into the ancient Greeks’ perception of the human psyche and behavior. At the core of this foundation are two epic poems, the “Iliad” and the “Odyssey,” attributed to the legendary poet Homer. These ancient narratives not only offer captivating tales of heroes and gods but also contain insights into the psychological dimensions of human nature and the cultural values of the time.
- Exploration of Human Emotions: The Homeric poems delve into a rich array of human emotions, portraying characters’ inner struggles, desires, fears, and aspirations. Through vivid descriptions and poignant dialogues, Homer captures the complexities of emotions such as anger, love, grief, and pride. Achilles’ wrath and Hector’s courage in the “Iliad,” as well as Odysseus’ longing for home in the “Odyssey,” offer profound insights into the emotional landscapes of the ancient Greeks.
- The Role of the Gods: Within the Homeric poems, the gods play an integral role in shaping human thoughts, emotions, and actions. The interactions between mortals and deities reveal a complex interplay between free will and divine influence. The gods often serve as metaphors for human motivations and inner conflicts, highlighting the interconnectedness of the psychological and the divine realms in the ancient Greek worldview.
- Ethical and Moral Reflections: Homer’s narratives also provide a moral and ethical framework for understanding human behavior. Through characters’ choices and their consequences, the poems offer reflections on concepts such as honor, loyalty, courage, and justice. The heroes’ internal struggles and ethical dilemmas invite readers to contemplate the intricacies of right and wrong in the human experience.
- Identity and Self-Discovery: The “Odyssey” in particular emphasizes the theme of identity and self-discovery. Odysseus’ journey home becomes a metaphor for the psychological odyssey of self-exploration, growth, and transformation. His encounters with various characters and challenges symbolize the stages of personal development and the search for a deeper understanding of oneself.
- Cultural Insights: Beyond individual psychology, the Homeric poems provide valuable cultural insights into the ancient Greek society’s values, norms, and aspirations. The characters’ interactions, social roles, and aspirations reflect the ideals and beliefs of the time, shedding light on the collective psyche of the ancient Greeks.
In essence, the Homeric foundation of psychology in Classical Antiquity offers a window into the ancient Greeks’ contemplation of the human psyche and the forces that shape human behavior. The poems serve as a mirror that reflects not only individual experiences but also the larger cultural and philosophical currents of the time. By examining these foundational texts, we gain a deeper appreciation for the early psychological explorations that laid the groundwork for the subsequent development of psychological thought in the classical world and beyond.
Read more about Homeric Foundations
IV. Hellenistic Philosophical Schools and Psychological Ideas
A. Epicureanism: Pursuit of Pleasure and Mental Tranquility
Among the Hellenistic philosophical schools, Epicureanism held a distinctive view of psychology. Founded by Epicurus, this school emphasized the pursuit of happiness and mental tranquility through the moderation of desires. Epicureans believed that pleasure was the highest good, advocating for the cultivation of simple pleasures and the avoidance of excessive desires. They asserted that the fear of death and the belief in divine intervention were detrimental to mental well-being, urging individuals to attain ataraxia (calmness) by understanding the natural world and the limits of human desires.
B. Stoicism: Virtue, Self-Control, and Emotional Regulation
Stoicism, another influential school, centered its psychological ideas on virtue, self-control, and emotional regulation. Founded by Zeno of Citium, Stoics believed that individuals could achieve eudaimonia (flourishing) by cultivating virtue and living in harmony with the rational order of the universe. Stoicism highlighted the importance of practicing self-control over passions and emotions, maintaining inner tranquility in the face of external circumstances. This emphasis on rationality, resilience, and ethical living played a pivotal role in shaping psychological concepts related to character and emotional well-being.
Read more about
C. Skepticism: Suspicion of Dogmatic Beliefs and Mental States
Skepticism, exemplified by philosophers like Pyrrho of Elis, challenged the certainty of knowledge and the reliability of sensory perception. Skeptics argued that human perceptions and beliefs were subject to error, leading to doubt and suspension of judgment. This skepticism extended to matters of psychology, as skeptics questioned the validity of mental states and the possibility of attaining absolute truths about the mind. Skeptical inquiry contributed to the awareness of cognitive biases and the limitations of human understanding, encouraging a more nuanced exploration of psychological phenomena.
The Hellenistic philosophical schools of Epicureanism, Stoicism, and Skepticism exemplified the diversity of psychological ideas that emerged during Classical Antiquity. These schools addressed various aspects of human experience, ranging from the pursuit of pleasure and mental well-being to the cultivation of virtue and emotional regulation, and even to the skepticism surrounding the nature of knowledge and mental states. These philosophical perspectives laid the groundwork for future developments in psychology, leaving a lasting imprint on the understanding of human behavior and the complexities of the mind.
V. Medical and Biological Perspectives in Ancient Greece
A. Hippocrates and the Humoral Theory of Personality
Hippocrates, often referred to as the “Father of Medicine,” made significant contributions to understanding the interplay between the body and the mind. He developed the humoral theory of personality, which posited that an individual’s physical and mental health were influenced by the balance of four bodily fluids or humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Imbalances in these humors were believed to lead to specific personality traits and psychological tendencies. For example, an excess of black bile was associated with melancholy or depression. Hippocrates’ holistic approach to health emphasized the importance of a balanced lifestyle to maintain both physical and mental well-being.
B. Galen and the Interaction of Body and Mind
Galen, a physician in Ancient Rome heavily influenced by Greek medicine, expanded upon Hippocrates’ ideas and developed a comprehensive theory of the connection between the body and the mind. He proposed that the brain played a central role in controlling mental functions and emotions. Galen’s work highlighted the intricate relationship between bodily functions and psychological experiences. His views laid the groundwork for understanding the complex interdependence of mental and physical health, marking a crucial step in the evolution of psychological thought.
C. Contributions of Greek Medicine to Understanding Psychological Disorders
Greek medical practitioners, including Hippocrates and Galen, also made strides in understanding and categorizing psychological disorders. Hippocrates categorized mental illnesses into different types based on their symptoms and suggested that they could be caused by imbalances in bodily fluids. He advocated for compassionate care and therapeutic approaches for individuals with psychological distress. Galen further expanded on the classification of mental disorders, describing conditions such as hysteria, mania, and melancholia. These early attempts at understanding psychological disorders laid the foundation for later developments in the field of abnormal psychology.
The medical and biological perspectives of Ancient Greece, as exemplified by the humoral theory of personality and the ideas of Hippocrates and Galen, played a pivotal role in shaping the understanding of the intricate relationship between the body and the mind. These perspectives emphasized the interconnectedness of physical and mental health, providing valuable insights into the nature of personality, emotions, and psychological disorders.
VI. Psychological Concepts in Ancient Rome
A. Influence of Greek Philosophical Ideas on Roman Thought
The intellectual and cultural exchange between Ancient Greece and Rome facilitated the transmission of philosophical ideas, including those related to psychology. Greek philosophers such as Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics exerted a profound influence on Roman thought. Roman scholars and thinkers engaged with Greek concepts, adapting them to their own cultural context. This cross-pollination enriched Roman understanding of the human mind and behavior, laying the groundwork for the development of psychological concepts in Roman society.
B. Roman Stoicism and Its Impact on Mental Well-being
Stoicism, a philosophical school that originated in Greece and gained popularity in Ancient Rome, played a significant role in shaping Roman attitudes toward mental well-being. Stoics emphasized the importance of cultivating virtue, self-control, and emotional resilience as a means to achieve inner tranquility. This philosophy advocated for aligning one’s thoughts and behaviors with reason, enabling individuals to navigate challenges and adversities with equanimity. The Stoic emphasis on self-mastery and moderation contributed to the development of psychological strategies for coping with stress and maintaining emotional balance.
C. Roman Medicine and the Evolution of Psychological Thinking
Roman contributions to medicine also contributed to the evolution of psychological thinking. Galen, a prominent Roman physician, built upon the foundation laid by Greek medical theories and expanded understanding of the brain’s role in mental processes. His anatomical studies led to insights into the nervous system’s connection to cognitive and emotional functions. Additionally, Roman medical practitioners recognized the significance of psychological factors in influencing physical health. Concepts such as psychosomatic illness emerged, highlighting the intricate links between mental states and bodily well-being.
The interaction between Greek philosophical ideas, Roman Stoicism, and advancements in Roman medicine fostered the growth of psychological concepts in Ancient Rome. These concepts underscored the importance of mental well-being, self-mastery, and the interconnectedness of mind and body. As Roman thinkers engaged with and expanded upon Greek notions, they contributed to the rich tapestry of psychological thought in classical antiquity.
VII. Religious and Mystical Beliefs in Psychological Context
A. Oracles, Divination, and the Role of the Divine in Psychological Matters
In the realm of classical antiquity, religious and mystical beliefs held a significant place in shaping psychological perspectives. Oracles and divination practices were integral to the ancient understanding of the human mind’s connection to the divine. Individuals sought guidance and insight into various aspects of their lives by consulting oracles and interpreting omens. The belief in a higher power’s involvement in human affairs influenced psychological states, as people sought to comprehend their experiences through the lens of the divine.
B. Mystery Cults, Initiation Rites, and Altered States of Consciousness
Mystery cults, characterized by their secretive rituals and initiation rites, offered participants a unique psychological experience. These cults promised spiritual enlightenment, personal transformation, and communion with divine forces. Initiates often underwent intense rituals involving altered states of consciousness induced by fasting, sensory deprivation, and other practices. These altered states were believed to facilitate direct encounters with the divine, contributing to personal revelations and heightened psychological experiences.
C. The Influence of Religious and Mystical Practices on Psychological Experiences
Religious and mystical practices in classical antiquity had a profound impact on psychological experiences. Participation in mystery cults and engagement with religious rituals not only shaped individuals’ spiritual beliefs but also influenced their emotional and cognitive states. The pursuit of divine communion and transcendent experiences led to altered perceptions of reality, expanded consciousness, and a heightened sense of connection to the cosmos. These practices demonstrated the ways in which religious and mystical beliefs interacted with psychological processes, offering individuals a deeper understanding of their inner world and the mysteries of existence.
The intertwining of religious and mystical beliefs with psychological experiences in classical antiquity underscores the holistic nature of human understanding. Oracles, divination, mystery cults, and other practices provided avenues for individuals to explore the intersections between their internal psychological states and the spiritual realm. These beliefs and practices enriched the psychological landscape of the time, offering unique insights into the complexity of human consciousness and the quest for meaning beyond the material world.
VIII. Education, Rhetoric, and the Development of the Self
A. Greek Education and the Formation of Character
Education played a crucial role in classical antiquity in shaping individuals’ psychological development and self-perception. Greek educational systems emphasized the cultivation of virtues, ethics, and character formation. Young minds were exposed to a curriculum that encompassed physical, intellectual, and moral education. This holistic approach aimed to mold well-rounded individuals capable of contributing positively to society. The integration of physical exercise, intellectual pursuits, and ethical teachings in education illustrates how psychological growth was intertwined with personal development and societal engagement.
B. Rhetoric and the Art of Persuasion in Shaping Minds
Rhetoric, the art of persuasive communication, held a central position in classical education and psychological discourse. Mastery of rhetoric was not merely a tool for effective communication but also a means of understanding the nuances of human psychology. Rhetorical techniques aimed to sway emotions, alter perceptions, and influence decisions. The study of rhetoric provided insights into the human psyche, revealing how language and persuasion could shape beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. This emphasis on rhetoric highlighted the interconnectedness of language, cognition, and psychological manipulation.
C. Philosophical Schools as Centers of Psychological Exploration
Philosophical schools in classical antiquity served as intellectual hubs where psychological ideas were examined and debated. These schools, such as the Academy of Plato and the Lyceum of Aristotle, fostered deep contemplation on the nature of the self, consciousness, and the mind. Philosophers engaged in dialectical discussions to explore questions related to human behavior, emotions, and reasoning. The philosophical inquiries into the human condition laid the foundation for understanding psychological processes, contributing to the rich tapestry of psychological thought in the classical era.
The interplay between education, rhetoric, and philosophical exploration underscored the intricate ways in which classical societies perceived and cultivated the self. Education’s focus on character and virtue development, combined with the art of persuasion and philosophical contemplation, shaped individuals’ psychological landscapes. The ancient emphasis on holistic education, effective communication, and philosophical inquiry offers valuable insights into how classical civilizations approached the understanding of the self, the mind, and human behavior.
IX. Influential Figures and Their Contributions
A. Pythagoras: Connections Between Mathematics and the Soul
Pythagoras, renowned for his mathematical contributions, also ventured into the exploration of the soul’s relationship with numbers. He believed in the harmony of the cosmos and sought to reveal how mathematical principles could illuminate the nature of the soul. Pythagorean teachings emphasized the interconnectedness of numbers, music, and the soul’s spiritual essence. His philosophical insights into the metaphysical connections between mathematics and the soul contributed to a unique perspective on the interplay between abstract concepts and the human psyche.
B. Socrates: The Socratic Method and Self-Examination
Socrates, one of the most influential figures in Western philosophy, employed the Socratic method—a dialectical approach—to stimulate self-examination and critical thinking. Through a series of probing questions, Socrates aimed to uncover innate knowledge and encourage individuals to reflect on their beliefs and values. This method of self-inquiry fostered introspection, encouraging individuals to delve into the depths of their own thoughts and motives. Socratic dialogue provided a platform for examining one’s own mental processes and contributing to the development of philosophical introspection.
C. Seneca: Stoic Philosophy and Mental Resilience
Seneca, a prominent Stoic philosopher, addressed psychological well-being through his teachings on virtue and mental resilience. Stoicism, with its emphasis on self-mastery, rationality, and tranquility in the face of adversity, offered a comprehensive framework for cultivating a balanced and resilient mind. Seneca’s writings on ethical conduct, managing emotions, and embracing hardships underscored the Stoic approach to psychological fortitude. His insights into the connections between philosophy, virtue, and psychological well-being have left a lasting impact on the understanding of the human psyche.
The contributions of figures like Pythagoras, Socrates, and Seneca reflect the diversity of perspectives within classical antiquity’s psychological discourse. Their explorations into mathematics, self-examination, and Stoic philosophy demonstrate the multidimensional nature of psychological thought during this era. These influential figures not only shaped their contemporaneous societies but also left a lasting imprint on subsequent generations, offering timeless insights into the intricate interplay between the mind, the soul, and philosophical contemplation.
X. Legacy and Continuation of Ancient Psychological Ideas
A. Influence of Classical Antiquity on Later Philosophical Movements
The ideas and philosophies that emerged during classical antiquity left an indelible mark on the trajectory of philosophical thought. Ancient thinkers, through their exploration of the mind, soul, and human nature, laid the foundation for subsequent philosophical movements. Elements of Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Platonic thought continued to resonate in later schools of philosophy, such as the Enlightenment and existentialism. The enduring influence of these ancient psychological concepts can be traced through the evolution of philosophical discourse, shaping how we contemplate the complexities of human experience.
B. Enduring Concepts from Ancient Psychology in Modern Thought
Many concepts that originated in classical antiquity have endured and evolved, finding resonance in modern psychological theories. The tripartite soul theory of Plato, for instance, bears similarities to contemporary models of personality and consciousness. Stoic principles of emotional regulation and mental resilience have parallels in cognitive-behavioral therapies. The enduring relevance of these ideas underscores their timeless exploration of the human psyche and their adaptability to contemporary psychological frameworks.
C. Importance of Understanding Ancient Psychology for Contemporary Studies
An exploration of psychology in classical antiquity is not merely a historical exercise; it has profound implications for contemporary psychological understanding. The insights of ancient philosophers provide a rich tapestry of ideas that can enrich modern approaches to mental health, self-awareness, and ethical reasoning. By delving into the roots of psychological thought, contemporary scholars can gain a deeper appreciation for the historical evolution of their field and cultivate a broader perspective on the human experience.
As we reflect on the legacy of ancient psychological ideas, we recognize that the questions and explorations of classical antiquity continue to reverberate through the corridors of modern psychology. The threads woven by ancient philosophers remain interwoven in the fabric of our understanding of the mind, the soul, and the intricate interplay between philosophy and psychology.
XI. Conclusion
A. Reflection on the Significance of Classical Antiquity in Psychology
The exploration of psychology in classical antiquity unveils a tapestry of thought that has contributed immeasurably to the foundations of psychology as we know it today. From the philosophical inquiries into the nature of the soul to the medical and educational perspectives on human behavior, classical antiquity has provided a rich reservoir of ideas that continue to resonate in the modern study of the mind. By tracing the historical roots of psychological thought, we gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate connections between philosophy, science, and the human experience.
B. Call for Further Exploration and Research into this Field
While this article has delved into the realm of psychology in classical antiquity, there remains a vast landscape of untapped knowledge and unexplored ideas. The significance of ancient psychological concepts extends beyond mere historical curiosity; it holds the potential to enrich our contemporary understanding of human behavior, cognition, and emotion. Scholars are encouraged to delve deeper into the texts, philosophies, and cultural contexts of classical antiquity to unearth further insights that may illuminate our modern understanding of the mind.
C. Acknowledgment of the Richness and Diversity of Ancient Psychological Ideas
Classical antiquity was a time of diverse and often contrasting philosophical and cultural perspectives. From the Stoic emphasis on self-control to the mystical experiences of religious practices, the ancient world offered a kaleidoscope of psychological ideas that reflected the complexities of the human psyche. As we conclude this exploration, it is essential to acknowledge the depth of thought and the multiplicity of voices that contributed to shaping early psychological discourse.
In closing, the study of psychology in classical antiquity serves as a bridge connecting the past to the present, offering insights into the eternal questions about human nature, consciousness, and the mysteries of the mind. As we peer through the annals of time, we find that the echoes of ancient thinkers continue to reverberate, inviting us to engage in a timeless dialogue about the nature of the human experience and the intricate interplay between psychology, philosophy, and the pursuit of knowledge.
References:
- Barnes, J. (1984). The Presocratic Philosophers. Routledge.
- Cooper, J. M. (Ed.). (1997). Plato: Complete Works. Hackett Publishing.
- Guthrie, W. K. C. (1986). The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts. Cambridge University Press.
- Hadot, P. (2002). What is Ancient Philosophy? Harvard University Press.
- Kahn, C. H. (1983). The Art and Thought of Heraclitus: An Edition of the Fragments with Translation and Commentary. Cambridge University Press.
- Long, A. A. (Ed.). (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
- Nussbaum, M. C. (1994). The Therapy of Desire: Theory and Practice in Hellenistic Ethics. Princeton University Press.
- Pangle, L. S. (1988). The Roots of Political Philosophy: Ten Forgotten Socratic Dialogues. Cornell University Press.
- Sedley, D. N. (2007). The Cambridge Companion to Greek and Roman Philosophy. Cambridge University Press.
- Sorabji, R. (2003). Emotion and Peace of Mind: From Stoic Agitation to Christian Temptation. Oxford University Press.